The Hellas Herald – part of Greek Expedition

• How did the outside world perceive Greece in the 19th century, as the young nation began to take shape?
• What role did travel writers and artists play in shaping the image of this new Greece?
• What do the news columns tell us about 19th-century Greece, a time when it was viewed by many as an almost exotic destination?

In our new series, Hellas Herald, we are delving into travelogues, art, poetry, and contemporary newspaper archives, we are piecing together a mosaic of voices to approach the questions surrounding Greece in the 19th century.

We begin our search through this archival treasure trove with the story of the fearless artist Elisabeth Jerichau-Baumann. A long-forgotten article in Göteborgs-Posten, a Swedish newspaper, from October 30, 1880, left us speechless before the adventures of this fascinating Polish-Danish artist.

Elisabeth Jerichau-Baumann (1819–1881)

Elisabeth Jerichau-Baumann was a Danish-Polish artist who painted with a burning creative fervor and lived driven by an appetite for adventure that could not be contained by the narrow female ideals of her time.

With immense energy, she took 19th-century Europe by storm. After giving birth to nine children between 1847 and 1861, she embarked on her great international travels. Today, we will follow her intense journeys through the starkly contrasting landscapes of the Orient and Southern Europe. She spent a great deal of time in Greece during the 19th century.

Reader’s tip: At the end of this article, we take a look at the 19th-century advertising market – hilariously entertaining! 👇

The path to European artistic life

As a young artist, Elisabeth Jerichau-Baumann tried to adapt to a Danish cultural climate characterized by strong national romantic currents. She became known as one of the most typical representatives of the style in Danish art. Since the art academies of the time did not allow female students, she was mostly self-taught through extensive independent studies.

Later, she moved to Rome, where she quickly became part of the German artist colony. It was also there that she met the Danish sculptor Jens Adolf Jerichau, whom she married. Her husband’s own erotically charged statues gave her the courage to ignore the local narrow-mindedness and pursue her own sensual style of painting, despite the great social risks for a woman in the 19th century.

Although she kept Rome as her fixed base, she was constantly on the move. Her own books, Ungdomserindringer (1874) and Brogede Rejsebilleder (1881), provide vivid, albeit strongly romanticized, depictions of the colorful and international artistic life of that time.

From the world of fairy tales to royal courts

In these circles, H.C. Andersen also moved, who had traveled in Greece in the 19th century as well.

Elisabeth immortalized the storyteller in a painting where he reads to her own children. But her connection to Andersen and his works did not stop there. She also created a series of acclaimed paintings with mermaid motifs and gifted one of these works to him.

Her ability to capture life and character quickly made her sought after among the absolute elite of Europe. Before Elisabeth turned her gaze eastward, she had already won great recognition and secured prestigious commissions from royals across the entire continent.

Travel in Greece in the 19th century

She soon felt cramped by Danish cultural life. Her temperament and great ambitions required more space than the North could offer. She packed her brushes and headed east, towards environments completely different from the usual European artistic hubs. Ahead of her waited a colorful and perilous existence that stretched from the royal court in Athens and encounters with outlaws in the mountains of Attica to the closed doors of the sultan’s harem in Constantinople.

The Royal Court in Athens

In Athens, she quickly charmed the Greek royal couple, George I and Queen Olga. That the young king was a Danish prince by birth became Elisabeth’s perfect ticket to the palace.
Soon she was sitting in the royal salons, portraying the court in a city that was transforming into a new, modern metropolis. With her unfailing charm and courage, Elisabeth stepped straight into the corridors of power without hesitation. She not only managed to win the royal family’s trust, but also became a frequent chronicler of the rest of Athenian society, where the ancient heritage met the new, colorful elite of the 19th century.

The outlaws in the mountains of Attica

Traveling in Greece in the 19th century was not risk-free, and the mountains of Attica hid dangers that required a completely different kind of courage than the quiet salons of Athens. Her choice to paint out in the open was at this time very unusual in Greece, especially for a woman, because the countryside was constantly threatened by lawless bands of outlaws. These bands of outlaws were a genuine social plague that paralyzed the countryside, but they were also deeply intertwined with the local politics of the time.

For the still young nation, the bandits were merely criminals who threatened the security of the state. But among the people, they were often seen as heirs to the old freedom fighters of the revolution, the klephts and armatoles, who protected the local population against the exercise of state power. Elisabeth Jerichau-Baumann refused to let herself be stopped by the dangers in this charged environment.

She bravely ventured into the mountains to immortalize “native Greek bandits and outlaws.” Although these specific paintings have been lost to the shadows of history, newspaper articles from the 1880s testify to a courage that lacked precedent in the European salons of the time.

In Göteborgs-Posten, her dramatic and contrast-filled time in 19th-century Greece is described as follows:

📜 She spent some time at the court of the King of Greece, occupied mostly with painting portraits, portraits of kings, queens, and princes, but also of native Greek bandits and outlaws.

The secrets of the Ottoman harems

Elisabeth did not stay long with the Greek royal couple. She sought to travel further east to Constantinople, where she achieved the rare feat of gaining access, as a Western woman, to the city’s otherwise completely closed Ottoman harems.

The journey then continued even further south, to Egypt, where, on the outskirts of Cairo, she found new motifs that continued to challenge the European audience’s view of the women of the Orient.

Her paintings from there differed radically from the exotic fantasies of contemporary male artists. Because she had actually spent time close to the women, she did not portray them as anonymous objects, but with a rare psychological depth, dignity, and a vibrant light that captivated the art world.

The echoes of the era in the printing presses

Her life and career continued to fascinate long after she had left the Mediterranean, which is clearly visible in the contemporary press. During the 1880s, her achievements were written about with great admiration in Swedish media. When Elisabeth Jerichau-Baumann exhibited her works in Gothenburg in the autumn of 1880, it attracted great attention.

In Göteborgs-Posten, the exhibition was described as an event where the art was studied with “lively interest and great pleasure.” The writer reflected on her artistic development and the unique experiences she had gathered during her travels:

📜 Afterwards, she stayed in Constantinople and gained access to Mustapha Fazil Pasha’s harem, where she portrayed his beautiful daughter on behalf of the Princess of Wales. In the collection she has now exhibited, there are also portraits of several beautiful harem ladies, but with fictitious names—a delicacy toward the amiable ‘hanums’ (princesses), which was probably less dictated by their own desire than by the moral laws of Muhammad…

Through these words from 1880, the image of an artist emerges who not only mastered her choice of color and lighting but also navigated a complex world with an unusual sensitivity for cultural conventions.

A life in the service of art

Elisabeth Jerichau-Baumann was a force of nature who proved that a woman with a paintbrush could be just as quick-witted, powerful, and unstoppable as her most celebrated male colleagues. At her passing, her life’s work and her rebellious spirit were celebrated. She is still considered by many to be a true pioneer.

Her contemporaries remembered her not only for her canvases, but for the vitality she radiated until the very end. In one of the obituaries, it was described how she, at a large banquet in Gothenburg’s finest reception hall, had captivated her audience:

📜 She captivated everyone with the fiery and captivating immediacy with which she took the floor in a gathering of five hundred people… it would have taken more to break her immense energy, which was based on the most sincere conviction that a true artistic talent resided within her.

It is a moving description of a woman who, until her very last breath, lived with “her usual liveliness,” her warm devotion to art, and her flashing brilliance.

The analog noise of the 1880s

Before we put a period to this first issue of Hellas Herald, we linger for a moment over the newspapers of that time, consisting of long vertical columns. The contrasts in the media climate of the 19th century are striking; when we study old newspapers, such as Sydsvenska Dagbladet Snällposten, we see how news reporting, cultural advertisements, and commercials for daily necessities jostled for space on the same surface.

It is a reminder that the newspaper reader of the past was met by an entirely different kind of “analog noise” than today’s digital feeds. Right next to notices about art auctions and cultural events were advertisements for everything from military associations to the home remedy “Parasiticida.”

Reading a page from that time is like stepping into a world where the sublime – such as the art of Elisabeth Jerichau-Baumann – constantly had to share the stage with the more grounded, and for us sometimes purely absurd, concerns of everyday life.

Related article

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It is a detail that gives the images an additional dimension of discomfort – they were taken by the perpetrator’s own documentarian, but have now, decades later, become evidence of the resistance they were intended to suppress.

For many Greeks, the photographs have become a powerful visual encounter with a history that has lived on, for generations, primarily through stories, ceremonies, and memorials.

Facts about the Kaisariani mass execution

The Nazis’ execution of 200 Greek resistance fighters at the shooting range in Kaisariani (Skopetírio Kaisarianís), just southeast of central Athens, took place on May 1, 1944, and has for decades been a central part of the country’s historical consciousness. The newly published photographs have once again brought this memory into focus and given it renewed life.

The background was an attack in late April 1944, when Greek resistance fighters killed the German General Franz Krech and his entourage near Molaoi in Laconia, not far from Sparta. As a reprisal, the German occupation authorities decided that 200 political prisoners would be executed. The men were taken from the internment camp in Haidari and transported at dawn to Kaisariani.

The executions were carried out in groups of twenty. The prisoners were lined up at the shooting range and shot by German firing squads. In postwar accounts, it has often been emphasized that many of those sentenced to death displayed calm and solidarity as they were led toward their fate. It is part of the collective narrative of the Kaisariani mass execution, a story of dignity under extreme violence.

It is precisely this dimension that the newly published photographs now provide with concrete visual confirmation. In the images, the men can be seen walking toward the site, lined up along the embankment, with postures that many Greeks perceive as composed and resolute rather than resigned. What previously lived through testimony and memorial words thus gains a different presence.

The Massacres in Athens

Among the archives of the Greek state is, among other things, the front page of the resistance newspaper Apeléfterotis from May 17, 1944. Under the headline “The Massacres in Athens,” the execution at the shooting range in Kaisariani is described as the most extensive that spring. The newspaper reported that the men were executed in groups of twenty over the course of a few hours.

Contemporary texts testify to how the execution was experienced by those in the vicinity. The church bells in Kaisariani are said to have rung throughout the entire course of events, and people at a distance followed what was happening with strong emotions. In postwar accounts, it has often been recounted how those sentenced to death stood upright until the very end and shouted slogans for freedom and national independence.

For many families, this is not an abstract historical episode but part of their own family history from the occupation period. In my own family as well, some young men were executed by the German occupation forces in August 1944 – a story that has lived on through oral accounts and that has previously been recounted here on the Expedition: Anonymous Heroes of the Greek Resistance

The weight of the event also extends far into international diplomacy. During his visit to Greece in June 1987, German Federal President Richard von Weizsäcker chose the memorial in Kaisariani to honor the victims of the occupation during the Second World War. It was a gesture that at the time was met with skepticism from conservative circles in both the Greek and German administrations. During his visit, Weizsäcker also mentioned the names of several other places in Greece where the German war machine carried out massacres: Kalavryta, Distomo, Kleisoura, Kommeno, Lyngiades, and Kandanos.

The Greek resistance during the Second World War was organized into several groups, of which EAM (National Liberation Front) was the largest and most influential resistance organization during the occupation. EAM included civilian activists, partisans, and organized resistance fighters who fought against the German and Italian occupation forces. More information about the Greek resistance movement can be found here >>

Monument vandalized

But the circulation of the photographs has not only been met with reverence. Shortly after the images began circulating in Greek feeds, it was reported that the memorial monument at the shooting range in Kaisariani had been subjected to vandalism. Unknown perpetrators defaced the marble plaque on which the names of the 200 executed men are engraved.

The incident provoked strong reactions and was immediately condemned by the Municipality of Kaisariani. In a statement, local representatives emphasized that historical memory cannot be erased through vandalism and assured that the damage would be promptly restored. This physical attack on the monument, at a time when the event has become more visually present than ever, serves as a reminder that the memory of the occupation and its victims remains a sensitive issue in Greek society.

Worth noting about the image material

Many have reacted to the fact that the published images primarily show the preparations before the execution and the transport to the site. According to experts who have examined the collection, however, an additional three to four photographs exist that depict the execution itself or the moments immediately afterward. That these were not shown in connection with the eBay auction is likely due to the platform’s strict rules against the publication of violent imagery, rather than their absence from the historical archive.

From eBay to National Memory

The chain of events behind the sudden spread of the images began only a few weeks ago, when a Belgian collector put the unique original photographs up for sale on the auction site eBay. The discovery was quickly noticed by the Greek Facebook group Greece at WWII Archives, which shared the images further, still bearing the seller Crainsmilitarias watermark and a clear reference to the auction.

The publication of the Kaisariani mass execution images immediately triggered what can best be described as a digital volcanic eruption; the images spread virally across Greek social media and were almost immediately picked up by established news outlets throughout the country.

The enormous attention prompted the Greek Ministry of Culture to act swiftly. Experts were sent to verify the authenticity of the images, and after rapid confirmation, the photographs were officially declared a national historical memory. To secure the documents for posterity, the Greek state has now initiated negotiations with the collector for a purchase to incorporate them into the national archives.

That these photographs from the Kaisariani mass execution have now become public reveals a clear contradiction. When the images are sold on a site like eBay, a historical trauma is transformed into a commodity, forcing us to consider who truly has the right to these men’s final moments.

But in the end, the circulation has had another effect. Despite the vandalism of the monument and despite the originals having ended up in private hands, the event the images depict – the Kaisariani mass execution – can no longer be silenced or hidden. Now that they exist both in state archives and in the public consciousness, the 200 men have gained a presence that was not there before. It becomes a reminder that certain events are so significant that they belong to shared memory rather than to a single owner.

Film recommendation

For those who wish to gain a deeper understanding of the events, the film The Last Note (2017), directed by Pantelis Voulgaris, is recommended. The film portrays these final days in the Haidari camp and the heavy march toward the shooting range, offering a moving depiction of the courage that the images have now given us visual confirmation of.

Related articles

Sources

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1_May_1944_Kaisariani_executions
• https://greekreporter.com/2026/02/15/rare-photos-nazi-mass-execution-greek-prisoners-kaisariani/
• https://www.ekathimerini.com/news/1261011/kaisariani-memorial-to-resistance-fighters-vandalized/
• https://www.ekathimerini.com/culture/1295710/kaisariani-wwii-execution-photo-archive-declared-protected-monument/
• About user rights (Greek)
• Filmen The Last Note

Just over a month earlier, on 28 April 1941, the whole of humanity was humiliated when the swastika flag was raised on the Acropolis – the symbol of democracy and Western civilization. Athens had surrendered and Wehrmacht troops marched into the historic quarters.

The feat gets forgotten.

The two young men made their action known through independent statements in 1945. But in the difficult decades that followed, with civil war, persecutions, military dictatorship and more, the heroic act fell almost into oblivion.

It wasn’t until 1982 that the story made headlines again when Glezos and Sandas were interviewed on a popular TV program. The show was hosted by Freddy Germanos, a well-known journalist in Greece. This legendary interview (in Greek) is what most sources refer to when they talk about the heroic deed.

The secret crypts of the Acropolis

As the two 19-year-old students walked through the streets of Athens and saw the swastika waving over the sacred rock of the Acropolis, they decided to take action. The idea began to take shape in their minds. However, they quickly realized that careful preparation was needed before they could put their plan into action.

Glezos and Sandas got straight down to studying maps and literature about the Acropolis at the National Library. They read in the Great Greek Encyclopedia about the many tunnels and caves under the ancient rock. They realized that their only way past the German guards was through one of these hidden entrances. After careful study of the terrain, they decided on a particular crypt under the Acropolis that would be their way up that fateful night.

It’s been a bit of a mystery over the years about where exactly the cave opening was that they used to ascend the Acropolis cliff. They referred to it as Σπήλαιο της Αγραύλου/Agravlou Cave, but several local names have changed since 1941, and their memories have also been a little unclear at various times.

However, by studying their testimonies and statements, archaeologists have in recent years begun to identify the entrance as the Mycenaean Fountain, which has been known since antiquity, located on the north side of the Acropolis. Manolis Korres, professor emeritus at the Technical University of Greece and chairman of the Acropolis Conservation Committee, has spoken in favor of this theory in interviews. Therefore, while the heroes’ own statements can’t be entirely dismissed, the ‘Mycenaean Spring’ seems the most likely place from which the brave action began.

The plan gets implemented

On 30 May 1941, Glezos and Sandas heard on the radio that Crete had fallen into German hands. This became the impetus for them to put their bold plan into action.

That same midnight, they climbed up the cliff to try to take down the large, 4×2-meter Nazi flag. After three attempts at the top of the Acropolis, they finally managed to get it down. They cut off a piece around the swastika as a souvenir and threw the rest of the flag into a nearby dry well.

It was only the next morning that the German garrison discovered that their flag was missing from the mast of the Acropolis. The Nazis reacted harshly after their flag was taken down. The commander of the guard forces immediately issued a sharp communiqué:

“… On the night of 30-31 May, the German war flag was desecrated by being hauled down from the Acropolis by unknown perpetrators. Rigorous interrogations are underway. The culprits and their accomplices will be punished by death…“

Glezos and Santas were immediately sentenced to death in absentia. The German guard force was executed as punishment for not guarding the area properly. The local Greek police chiefs around the Acropolis were also immediately dismissed from their posts.

It’s worth noting that the Germans themselves announced the tearing down of the flag, which made the heroic act known all over Greece immediately and even attracted international attention. According to the Larousse Britannica encyclopedia, it led French President General de Gaulle to describe Manolis Glezos as “Europe’s first partisan'”

The anonymous heroes

The bold act of tearing down the Nazi flag from the Acropolis had a huge symbolic impact.

For the Nazis, seeing their flag removed from one of the world’s most important cultural sites was a huge embarrassment. Their harsh reprisals showed just how significant the action was. The event was also recognized internationally as a major act of resistance.

The Greek people were inspired to resist the occupying power, and the action was like a beacon of hope in the darkness. The civil courage of the two young students has been of great inspiration for future generations in their fight for freedom and democracy.

As Manolis Glezos often emphasizes, this action should be dedicated to all the anonymous heroes, up to 120,000 of them, who died, were executed, or were killed during the resistance against the Nazis. In most Greek families there is the memory of at least one such anonymous lost member who sacrificed their life for the homeland.

Sources:
https://www.liberal.gr/apopsi/apo-edo-anebikan-stin-akropoli-oi-glezos-santas
Freddy Germanos TV-program 1982
Wikipedia

Related article

The Greek alphabet has also historically played an important role in philosophy, science, and art. Letters such as Α (Alpha), Β (Beta), Δ (Delta), Π (Pi), and Σ (Sigma) have been fundamental in mathematics and other sciences. Learning the Greek alphabet and its background provides a deeper understanding of the history and culture of Greece and its impact on today’s societies. By exploring this alphabet, we open the door to new ideas and insights into how our civilization was shaped.

Moreover, if you wish to learn to speak Greek, you will hear from those who have already studied the language that the first step is to master the Greek alphabet.

The 24 letters

The modern Greek alphabet used today consists of 24 letters and has undergone many changes throughout history. In fact, the older alphabet had several letters that are no longer used in the modern written language. The 24 current letters are divided into 7 vowels and 17 consonants. The vowels are α (alpha), ε (epsilon), η (eta), ι (iota), ο (omicron), υ (ypsilon) and ω (omega). These are combined with different consonants to write the words of the Greek language.

Vowels, consonants, digraphs, and diphthongs

In addition to individual letters, the Greek writing system also includes digraphs, which are combinations of two letters that represent a specific sound or phonetic feature. Also, diphthongs are used in the Greek language. Diphthongs are mainly combinations of two vowels that form a single sound.

In simple terms, one can say that the Greek alphabet is thus a combination of vowels, consonants, digraphs, and diphthongs that together form the written representation of the language. These elements are used to create words, expressions, and sentences; they are the building blocks of the modern written Greek language.

Examples of how to say …

Related video – Guess Greek Gestures

Historical development of the alphabet

The Greek alphabet shows a fascinating historical development. Already in ancient times, there were numerous myths and theories about its origin. The dramatist Aeschylus claimed that the titan Prometheus was the first to give humans the letters. The tragedian Euripides, on the other hand, believed that the mythological hero Palamedes invented the alphabet, or at least parts of it. Other thinkers believed that the three goddesses of fate – the Moirae – created the first letters. There were also some who honored the god Hermes for this gift to humanity.

Linear B – the first Greek written language

As discussed in previous posts, it is now generally accepted that the oldest Greek written language was Linear B, which was in use during the Mycenaean period from 1400 BC to 1200 BC. However, the alphabet, as we know it today, is believed to have evolved from ancient Phoenician, although there are theories claiming that several language families may have influenced its development, according to the polygenesis theory.

Separating vowels and consonants

The Greek alphabet was an adaptation and modification of the Phoenician alphabet. The Greeks removed consonants that did not have equivalents in their language and used them instead to denote vowel sounds. Thus, they created the first writing system with separate symbols for vowels and consonants, allowing an unambiguous representation of speech. This was a significant advantage over other contemporary writing systems that could be ambiguous. In addition, the Greek alphabet now had a lower number of characters, which made the writing system more accessible to those who wanted to learn to write and could no longer be monopolized only by specialists, the scholars.

Upper and lower case letters

In ancient times, the classical alphabet consisted only of uppercase letters, meaning that all letters were written in capitals. We recognize this form of the alphabet from monumental texts, such as inscriptions on statues, vases, buildings, and public places.

It was not until the early Middle Ages, more specifically in the 9th and 10th centuries, that the lower-case letters were fully established in the Greek writing system. The introduction of lower-case letters allowed for greater variety and flexibility and enabled the use of different fonts and levels of style.

Accents

Greek language development is also characterized by the various systems of accent markings, used throughout the centuries, to facilitate linguistic pronunciation.
As early as the Hellenistic period, around 200 BC, people began experimenting with using a variety of diacritical marks, such as accents and breathing signs, to mark particular stresses and pronunciation variations. This was later systematized and became the so-called Greek polytonic system, where letters could carry several different accent marks and have varying pitches. The polytonic alphabet was in use for a very long time, almost two millennia. However, it was replaced in the 1980s by the monotonic writing system.

The monotonic system assigns letters only one accent, called a tone, which indicates that that particular letter should be emphasized in the word. This adjustment greatly simplified the written language and facilitated the use of the Greek alphabet in modern technologies and digital platforms. Those changes in the formation and the accentuation of the Greek alphabet reflect the continuous evolution of the language throughout history and its adaptation to different written and verbal needs.

Learn how to count with Greek numbers

In its original form, the Greek alphabet was probably used mainly to denote numbers and figures. In Greece, the Ionian numeral system was once the most widespread, before the Arabic numerals became established. This system is still used today, alongside the now-dominant modern numerals.

The Arabic system, also known as the Hindu-Arabic numeral system, was introduced in Greece in the Middle Ages. This took place in the context of trade relations and cultural exchange between the Arab and Greek worlds. It is important to note that the Arabic system did not replace the Greek numeral system completely and immediately. The transition was gradual and took place over a long period, from around the 9th century until the Renaissance. However, even today in Greece, the older system is used, especially for ordinal numbers and in official or ecclesiastical contexts.

Influences and impacts outside Greece

The historical importance of the Greek alphabet extends far beyond the borders of Greece. It has influenced the development of other writing systems, such as the Latin alphabet used in the Western world and the Cyrillic alphabet used in several Slavic languages. This shows the global impact of the Greek alphabet and its extensive spread across continents and cultural environments.

In science, the Greek alphabet has historically played a very significant role. Many mathematical symbols and terms used internationally have their roots in the Greek alphabet. For example, Σ (sigma) is used to denote summation, π (pi) to represent the number pi, and α (alpha) or δ (delta) to denote variables in various scientific disciplines. In astronomy and astrophysics, the Greek alphabet is used to name stars, constellations, and other celestial bodies. Many of the most famous stars have Greek letters as prefixes, such as α Centauri (Alpha Centauri), β Orionis (Beta Orionis), and γ Cassiopeiae (Gamma Cassiopeiae).

Combinations of letters of the Greek alphabet are also widely used by international associations, societies, and organizations to show common affiliation and strengthen cohesion. The letter combinations serve as identity symbols and can be seen in logos, emblems, and naming. Using Greek letters reinforces the link to ancient Greece and its rich cultural heritage. Examples include Lambda Theta Alpha, Alpha Phi Alpha, Phi Beta Kappa.

In English, we have the expression “the Alpha and Omega,” which comes directly from the Bible (Revelation 1:8). It refers to God calling himself the beginning and end of all things. So in English, “the Alpha and Omega” can be used to mean the absolute most important part of something.

When it comes to how the Greek alphabet is represented digitally, the Unicode character encoding is used. This means that each character of the written language is assigned a specific code that allows it to be represented on computers and digital devices. This has facilitated the use of the Greek alphabet in the digital world and made it accessible to a wide audience. In total, there are 518 characters in the Unicode standard that are classified as belonging to the Greek written language. Example: Alpha “Α” = (U+0391) and Omega “Ω” (U+03A9).

Letters that have disappeared

The letters of the Greek alphabet were not always twenty-four. During its development over the centuries, some of them fell out of use and were gradually abandoned. Some of these phased-out letters are:

• Digamma (Ϝ ϝ), was the sixth letter in early forms of the Greek alphabet. It was a phoneme, like the English (w)
• Sabi (ϡ) is also an old and now obsolete letter of the Greek alphabet, which was later used solely as a numerical symbol for the number 900. It is believed to represent a phoneme similar to double [ssh] or [tt].
• Stigma (Ϛ ) is a cluster of the characters sigma σ and taf τ still used today in the Greek numbering system as a symbol for the number six (6), Στ’. It was previously used instead of the pair st to write words such as stratos (ϛratos).

Final words

In conclusion, the alphabet is a fundamental part of Greece’s cultural and historical heritage. The Greek alphabet has a significance that extends far beyond its written uses. It is a symbol of Greece’s history and heritage, and has had a significant impact on science, mathematics, and other fields. By preserving and using the alphabet, Greece honors its rich history and demonstrates its continued importance in today’s society.

Sources:

• https://users.sch.gr/ipap/NEGlossa/fon-sim_NE-Gl.htm
• https://piotermilonas.blogspot.com
• Wikipedia
• worldhistory.org
• Encyclopedia Britannica

🎧 Aten i hörlurarna – en resa i din egen takt

Med vår ljudguide i VoiceMap får du uppleva Aten på ett nytt sätt. Turen leder dig genom stadens gömda lager – de undanskymda gränderna, de förbisedda byggnaderna och de berättelser som sällan ryms i guideböckerna. Du väljer själv tempot: följ rutten på plats i Aten med appen som följeslagare, eller lyssna som en virtuell vandring var du än befinner dig.

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Today, Georgios Xyftilis, blog writer and founder of the Greek Expedition, presents one of those sad stories, from his own family:

Grandma Kalliopi lost her 16-year-old son Kostas, the uncle we never got to know, when he was arrested and executed at the end of World War II, for being active in the Greek resistance. This is a fate sadly shared by too many families during the dark days of occupation. Listen to how Kalliopi recounts the tragic event in a film by Matheo Yamalakis (English subtitles):

This is an excerpt from Matheo Yamalakis film “Στην Αθήνα (In Athens)” from 1982,The whole film can be found at Matheos YouTube channel: / @matheoyamalakis5763
URL till the whole film: – ΣΤΗΝ ΑΘΗΝΑ
Matheos’ homepage: http://www.matheo.se/
Matheo Yamalakis was a Swedish-Greek film director and artist that sadly left us just about two years ago.

Grandma Kalliopi’s story in her own words

One morning I got up early, my husband had a morning shift. He had to be at the station at 5 am. I got up with him and followed him to the front door as usual.

Then I saw – there was a bakery opposite – I saw a man standing at the door outside the bakery. I was surprised because at that time people were not up so early. I wondered why he was standing there…

5 – 10 minutes after my husband left, I heard gunshots. I wondered what it could be and went down to the window to look. There I saw two Germans and two Greeks standing at the crossroads of Agiou Dimitriou, the main road leading here.
They were standing there with guns in their hands.

My one son Kostas was at home but my other son, Andreas, was not here. I hurriedly went into Kostas’ room and told him that there were Germans outside. He also came and looked. “It’s Bougiouris,” he said. I didn’t know who he was.

The house door kicked open

Kostas started to run but barely made it back to his room before the men kicked in the door – the outside door we still have downstairs – so that part of it broke off (I start crying when I remember) part of it broke off and they came in two Greeks and two Germans.

The German soldiers did not go into Kostas’ room, only the Greeks went there.
One was Stamatakos, the Germans used him as an interpreter. The other was Bougiouris, whom Kostas had mentioned. They started rummaging through cupboards and drawers, throwing our things around. Stamatakos slapped Kostas in the face.

I cried and screamed, “Why are you doing this?” “What has my child done to you?”
He replied: Do you forget that he brushed on the walls of the house “Down with Bougiouris!” “Down with the traitors!”? Now that I’m sending him to the Germans, he’ll see!
They took Kostas with them and left.

The detention camp in Chaidari

On his way out, Bougiouris says, “You’re lucky your other son isn’t here, otherwise I would have taken him too. So he meant Andreas.

They took Kostas and many others to the prison camp in Chaidari.

The following Sunday we also went there with another neighbor’s wife. We went there to give them clothes and to take their dirty laundry Kostas had left a little note among their clothes. He wanted us to send bandages next time.
I wondered why he needed bandages.

The next time we were there we managed to see him.
He was out working in the camp and had blisters on his skin.
“What is it?” I asked him. ‘It’s from the sun, mom.

His pants were also completely torn I asked him why he hadn’t put on the full pants I had sent along. ‘I haven’t, Mom, but I will,’ he said.
We asked where they had taken him. He said they had taken him to the police station.

Interrogation by the police

There he had met another neighbor of ours, Dritsakos was his name, he was a constable and wanted Kostas to reveal where one of his friends lived.
Kostas replied that he did not know. The officer said, you bastard, pretend you don’t know, I’ve seen you go to his house.

“Who wants to hit?” the officer asked the other policemen. And they all started hitting him. So he was in a bad way and needed the bandage he had asked for.

His father suggested we send in an application to be released.
“No,” said Kostas, “they’ll take me in for questioning again. They will hang me upside down from the winch, like when they interrogated my father and brother.

The end

One morning, my husband and I were on our way to visit Kostas again. We didn’t get any further than the bus station when we met one of the other arrested boys’ father. His name was Politis and I thought he looked very upset.

He asked us where we were going. “We’re going to the boys,” I replied.
“What boys?” he asked. It’s already over, they’ve been killed”.
My husband asked how he knew that.
“It was in the papers”.

We bought a newspaper and it had all their names and the place of execution.
So and so many have been hanged, in retaliation for a German soldier being killed.

After the liberation

Later, when the Germans left the country, we went there to do the excavation.
They lay foot to foot, in a big pit, they lay like this… buried in long rows, foot to foot.

We stood there all parents and watched as they shoveled away the earth, then I saw … recognized him … my Kostas, recognized him by his clothes.
The sweater he was wearing, the cross he was carrying… That’s our Kostas, I said to my husband.

We dug out the skeleton … he had his hands … hands clenched together… like this…
Only the knuckles were left.
Why does he have his hands like that, my Kostas, I wondered.

Voice of arrator in the video: Kalliopi will never know why her son clenched his fists when the fascists hanged him. Was it perhaps in defiance of the great injustice that had already begun to befall the people? The nationalist informers had begun to serve their new masters: the British and the king, who had now become the leader of local Fascism.
Later, during the Civil War, Kalliopi’s elder son, Andreas, was sentenced to death three times by the local fascists for fighting against Nazism. He was rescued just before his execution.

Late recognition of the Greek resistance

It would take decades before the anonymous heroes who fought against the occupation received their rightful vindication and recognition. It was only in the 1980s that their memory and the sacrifices they made for Greece’s freedom began to be openly honored.

In August 1982, the Greek Parliament adopted a bill recognizing the united national Greek resistance against the occupying forces during the period 1941-1944.

It is particularly important today to shine a light on the anonymous heroes of the Greek resistance, as far-right and xenophobic forces are once again gaining influence. As the echoes of boot-stomping paramilitary groups are once again heard on our streets and minorities are subjected to hatred and incitement, we should learn about and honor those who once stood up and gave their lives in the fight against oppression and totalitarianism.

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