It is a detail that gives the images an additional dimension of discomfort – they were taken by the perpetrator’s own documentarian, but have now, decades later, become evidence of the resistance they were intended to suppress.

For many Greeks, the photographs have become a powerful visual encounter with a history that has lived on, for generations, primarily through stories, ceremonies, and memorials.

Facts about the Kaisariani mass execution

The Nazis’ execution of 200 Greek resistance fighters at the shooting range in Kaisariani (Skopetírio Kaisarianís), just southeast of central Athens, took place on May 1, 1944, and has for decades been a central part of the country’s historical consciousness. The newly published photographs have once again brought this memory into focus and given it renewed life.

The background was an attack in late April 1944, when Greek resistance fighters killed the German General Franz Krech and his entourage near Molaoi in Laconia, not far from Sparta. As a reprisal, the German occupation authorities decided that 200 political prisoners would be executed. The men were taken from the internment camp in Haidari and transported at dawn to Kaisariani.

The executions were carried out in groups of twenty. The prisoners were lined up at the shooting range and shot by German firing squads. In postwar accounts, it has often been emphasized that many of those sentenced to death displayed calm and solidarity as they were led toward their fate. It is part of the collective narrative of the Kaisariani mass execution, a story of dignity under extreme violence.

It is precisely this dimension that the newly published photographs now provide with concrete visual confirmation. In the images, the men can be seen walking toward the site, lined up along the embankment, with postures that many Greeks perceive as composed and resolute rather than resigned. What previously lived through testimony and memorial words thus gains a different presence.

The Massacres in Athens

Among the archives of the Greek state is, among other things, the front page of the resistance newspaper Apeléfterotis from May 17, 1944. Under the headline “The Massacres in Athens,” the execution at the shooting range in Kaisariani is described as the most extensive that spring. The newspaper reported that the men were executed in groups of twenty over the course of a few hours.

Contemporary texts testify to how the execution was experienced by those in the vicinity. The church bells in Kaisariani are said to have rung throughout the entire course of events, and people at a distance followed what was happening with strong emotions. In postwar accounts, it has often been recounted how those sentenced to death stood upright until the very end and shouted slogans for freedom and national independence.

For many families, this is not an abstract historical episode but part of their own family history from the occupation period. In my own family as well, some young men were executed by the German occupation forces in August 1944 – a story that has lived on through oral accounts and that has previously been recounted here on the Expedition: Anonymous Heroes of the Greek Resistance

The weight of the event also extends far into international diplomacy. During his visit to Greece in June 1987, German Federal President Richard von Weizsäcker chose the memorial in Kaisariani to honor the victims of the occupation during the Second World War. It was a gesture that at the time was met with skepticism from conservative circles in both the Greek and German administrations. During his visit, Weizsäcker also mentioned the names of several other places in Greece where the German war machine carried out massacres: Kalavryta, Distomo, Kleisoura, Kommeno, Lyngiades, and Kandanos.

The Greek resistance during the Second World War was organized into several groups, of which EAM (National Liberation Front) was the largest and most influential resistance organization during the occupation. EAM included civilian activists, partisans, and organized resistance fighters who fought against the German and Italian occupation forces. More information about the Greek resistance movement can be found here >>

Monument vandalized

But the circulation of the photographs has not only been met with reverence. Shortly after the images began circulating in Greek feeds, it was reported that the memorial monument at the shooting range in Kaisariani had been subjected to vandalism. Unknown perpetrators defaced the marble plaque on which the names of the 200 executed men are engraved.

The incident provoked strong reactions and was immediately condemned by the Municipality of Kaisariani. In a statement, local representatives emphasized that historical memory cannot be erased through vandalism and assured that the damage would be promptly restored. This physical attack on the monument, at a time when the event has become more visually present than ever, serves as a reminder that the memory of the occupation and its victims remains a sensitive issue in Greek society.

Worth noting about the image material

Many have reacted to the fact that the published images primarily show the preparations before the execution and the transport to the site. According to experts who have examined the collection, however, an additional three to four photographs exist that depict the execution itself or the moments immediately afterward. That these were not shown in connection with the eBay auction is likely due to the platform’s strict rules against the publication of violent imagery, rather than their absence from the historical archive.

From eBay to National Memory

The chain of events behind the sudden spread of the images began only a few weeks ago, when a Belgian collector put the unique original photographs up for sale on the auction site eBay. The discovery was quickly noticed by the Greek Facebook group Greece at WWII Archives, which shared the images further, still bearing the seller Crainsmilitarias watermark and a clear reference to the auction.

The publication of the Kaisariani mass execution images immediately triggered what can best be described as a digital volcanic eruption; the images spread virally across Greek social media and were almost immediately picked up by established news outlets throughout the country.

The enormous attention prompted the Greek Ministry of Culture to act swiftly. Experts were sent to verify the authenticity of the images, and after rapid confirmation, the photographs were officially declared a national historical memory. To secure the documents for posterity, the Greek state has now initiated negotiations with the collector for a purchase to incorporate them into the national archives.

That these photographs from the Kaisariani mass execution have now become public reveals a clear contradiction. When the images are sold on a site like eBay, a historical trauma is transformed into a commodity, forcing us to consider who truly has the right to these men’s final moments.

But in the end, the circulation has had another effect. Despite the vandalism of the monument and despite the originals having ended up in private hands, the event the images depict – the Kaisariani mass execution – can no longer be silenced or hidden. Now that they exist both in state archives and in the public consciousness, the 200 men have gained a presence that was not there before. It becomes a reminder that certain events are so significant that they belong to shared memory rather than to a single owner.

Film recommendation

For those who wish to gain a deeper understanding of the events, the film The Last Note (2017), directed by Pantelis Voulgaris, is recommended. The film portrays these final days in the Haidari camp and the heavy march toward the shooting range, offering a moving depiction of the courage that the images have now given us visual confirmation of.

Related articles

Sources

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1_May_1944_Kaisariani_executions
• https://greekreporter.com/2026/02/15/rare-photos-nazi-mass-execution-greek-prisoners-kaisariani/
• https://www.ekathimerini.com/news/1261011/kaisariani-memorial-to-resistance-fighters-vandalized/
• https://www.ekathimerini.com/culture/1295710/kaisariani-wwii-execution-photo-archive-declared-protected-monument/
• About user rights (Greek)
• Filmen The Last Note

Hidden attractions in Athens

Athens is a city built in layers – marked by ancient civilizations, hard-won conquests, shifting beliefs, and the daily rhythms of life that still pulse through its streets today. Its buildings and alleys echo with the presence of many eras: Archaic and Classical Athens, the Hellenistic period, Roman occupation, a thousand years of Byzantine rule, Ottoman domination, Frankish control, the 19th-century War of Independence, and finally, the formation of the modern Greek state.

Sometimes, these layers are easy to spot – a marble column built into a later wall, a hidden courtyard tucked behind a noisy street. Other times, they lie buried, waiting to be uncovered by those who know where to look.

But Athens is not a museum. It is a living city, where past and present continuously intertwine. The same streets once walked by philosophers and revolutionaries now bustle with cafés, shops, and everyday Athenian life. Every step through Athens is a step across centuries.

Ancient aqueduct in the National Garden

Our first stop today, through lesser-known attractions in Athens, is the aqueduct of Pisistratus, built in the 6th century BCE, which still irrigates the central city park – the National Garden. We begin our walk at the park’s northern entrance, along Vasilissis Sofias Avenue.

Just a few steps from the park’s northern entrance on Vasilissis Sofias Avenue, you’ll find a small pond after roughly 65 feet. It may look quiet and unassuming, but it holds a fascinating secret: this is where water from an ancient aqueduct gathers before flowing onward to nourish the garden’s lush greenery.

This remarkable structure, known as the Peisistratos Aqueduct, dates back to the 6th century BCE and remains in operation today. It runs underground for about 4 miles at a depth of 30 – 40 feet. The aqueduct begins at the base of Mount Hymettos, the striking mountain range east of Athens, and follows the natural contours of the land toward the city center.

The pond also marks the garden’s highest point. From here, the water is directed into a branching system that irrigates the park’s trees and vegetation. It’s a quiet yet tangible link between ancient Athens and the modern metropolis.

Ancient remnants in the National Garden

The National Garden is truly a peaceful green space amid the city’s bustle – an oasis and a place to breathe in modern Athens. But the site also has deep historical roots. Already in antiquity, the philosopher and botanist Theophrastus had a private garden here. In the mid-19th century, a royal park was established on the same site at the initiative of Queen Amalia. At that time, it was known as the Royal Garden.

Today, known as the National Garden, it is a lush public refuge filled with winding paths, tall palm trees, and an unexpectedly rich birdlife – open to all, every day of the year.

To reach the next stop on our tour, we need to walk through the entire garden, from the northern pond to one of the southern exits. There, in a somewhat hidden corner, nestled among several other Roman remnants, lies a rather overlooked monument.

It is a massive architrave, a marble beam that for centuries adorned Hadrian’s great reservoir at Dexameni Square in Kolonaki. In the first part of our series, we explored the area around Dexameni, where this architrave once stood in its original place.

At the end of the 18th century, it was removed from its original location by the Ottoman ruler Hatzis Ali Haseki, who used parts of ancient monuments as building material for his defensive wall.

This particular marble block was then installed as a decorative top element above one of the wall’s seven city gates – the so-called Boubounistra Gate. After the Greek War of Independence, when the wall was torn down, it was eventually placed in its current location in the National Garden, without any form of signage. In the 19th century, it was common for ancient fragments to be reused as ornamental features in gardens, in a spirit of romanticism and decoration.

The marble architrave bears a Latin inscription stating that the aqueduct in Athens was begun by Emperor Hadrian and later completed and inaugurated by his adopted son, Antoninus Pius.

Hadrian’s Athens

Nearly two thousand years ago, Athens stood at the threshold of a dramatic transformation. The city was already ancient, but Emperor Hadrian sought to breathe new life into it. A devoted philhellene – a lover of Greek culture – Hadrian, though a conqueror, saw Athens as the cultural capital of the East, a place where Roman power and Hellenic heritage could converge.

During his reign, a new district rose in Athens, filled with monumental buildings, libraries, and grand residences for the city’s aristocracy. The era of Pax Romana became a golden age of architecture for the city, and no one played a greater role in reshaping it than Hadrian himself. He financed and oversaw many of the major projects – among them Hadrian’s Arch and the long-delayed completion of the great Temple of Olympian Zeus.

We’ve explored the temple and shared some of the lesser-known stories of the Olympieion in a previous article.

Now, we leave those iconic landmarks behind and make our way toward our next stop: King Otto’s arched stone bridge over the Ilisos River, today hidden beneath one of the busiest intersections in modern Athens.

The arch bridge over Ilisos

If you walk around the entire archaeological site of the Olympieion and follow the fence along its southern side, you’ll come out onto Athanasiou Diakou Street. Continuing along that road, you’ll soon reach one of the city’s busiest intersections, where several major thoroughfares converge.

Well hidden beneath the busy traffic of this intersection lies a stone arch bridge, built in the mid-1800s on the initiative of King Otto, Greece’s first monarch. It once spanned the Ilisos River – one of Athens’ largest waterways.

Today, the river runs underground, but the remaining channel has been overtaken by nature: dense, almost impenetrable vegetation spreads like a small, tangled jungle in the heart of the city. The central section of the riverbed is still known as Vatrachonisi/Frog Island – even though it’s no longer an island in the true sense. In ancient times, Frog Island was a sacred place where many gods, demigods, and nymphs were worshipped.

Relief of the God Pan

Just past the bridge, a small paved walkway branches off to the left, leading down into the overgrown riverbed. The small Orthodox chapel located there today is dedicated to Saint Photini. In ancient times, the sacred spring of Kallirhoe flowed nearby – its waters believed to be holy. The courtyard in front of the chapel is a great place to sit for a while and escape the roar of traffic just above.

About halfway down the walkway toward Agia Foteini, a barely visible path breaks off to the right, cutting through the vegetation and heading straight toward the cliff face. A sign indicates that the hollow in the rock was once a cult site dedicated to the god Pan. Numerous artifacts have been found here to support that interpretation.

Carved into the rock face is an ancient relief of the god Pan – still visible today, though hard to spot unless you know exactly where to look. In my experience, it’s easiest to make out when the afternoon sun hits the cliff from the west, casting shadows that bring out the contours. Time and city pollution have worn heavily on the original carving, and it’s worth noting that the entire cliff was once nearly demolished to widen the road above. It was only thanks to the persistent efforts of local archaeologists that the decision was reversed at the last moment.

To reach the next stop on our route through lesser-known attractions in Athens, we’ll need to cross over to the other side of the city center. We’ll walk through Plaka and Monastiraki, then follow Athinas Street toward Omonia Square – until we reach Athens’ Central Market.

Varvakios Agora – Athens Central Market

Athens Central Market, known as Varvakios Agora, is a bustling hub of commerce in the heart of the city. It first opened in 1886 and has been operating ever since. The air here is thick with the scents of spices, fresh fish, meat, cheese, fruit, and warm bread, blending with the shouts of vendors and the chatter between loyal customers and curious passersby.

During holidays – especially Easter – the market teems with Athenians stocking up for celebratory meals, reflecting the city’s vibrant food culture. The area around the market is equally lively, with small shops and stalls selling everything from dried fruit and nuts to soaps, baskets, and kitchen tools – offering an authentic glimpse into everyday life in Athens.

St. John on the Column

Not far from the meat and fish halls, right in the heart of the market district on Evripidou Street, stands the small chapel of Agios Ioannis tis Kolonas – St. John on the Column. A single ancient Corinthian column rises straight through the roof, making this spot a truly unique feature in the cityscape.

The chapel is believed to be around 1,500 years old, built on the ruins of an earlier temple dedicated to Asclepius, the god of healing. Even into modern times, visitors have tied colored threads around the column, secured with wax – a ritual performed in hope of relief from fever and illness. A hidden, sacred little chapel nestled in an area that, until the 19th century, was mostly farmland and open fields.

Beyond the city center

From King Otto’s stone bridge, the Ilisos River continues its journey underground all the way to its mouth in Faliro, near Piraeus. As shown in the video below, the Greek Expedition joined a striking and thrilling exploration beneath the Greek capital’s roads and buildings. The underground tour was organized in collaboration with the Alter Exploring Team, led by speleologist and civil engineer Panagiotis Deuteraios.

Athens behind the facades

The Ilisos River may be hidden today, but it still whispers beneath the city – quietly, unnoticed, yet never entirely silent. Like other traces we’ve followed on this tour, it remains beneath the surface – a reminder that Athens isn’t just something you see, but something you gradually uncover, layer by layer.
And perhaps it’s in the quiet in-between spaces – where history isn’t marked or signposted – that you come closest to the city itself.

Related articles

As promised in previous post, here is a more detailed description of the sites designated as World Heritage Sites in Greece. Of the total 19 sites, 16 are of pure cultural value. The remaining three sites, Meteora, Mount Athos, and Zagoria have been designated for cultural and environmental significance.

Immerse yourself in the country’s rich history and fascinating nature by familiarizing yourself with some of these significant sites. Click on the links in the table below to explore the UNESCO pages for each World Heritage Site in Greece.

World Heritage in Greece, sites 1 – 6

Namn	Bild	Plats	Årtal för utnämning	Beskrivning
Acropolis, Athens		Athens	1987	A well-known ancient site that includes the Parthenon Temple and other ancient buildings in the heart of Athens.
The archeological site of Delphi		Delphi	1987	An ancient sanctuary and oracle dedicated to the god Apollo. Delphi was considered the world hub in ancient beliefs.
Apollon Epicurius temple at Bassae		Messenia, southwest Peloponnese	1986	A well-preserved Doric temple dedicated to Apollo, known for its harmonious architecture and magnificent views of the valley.
Rhodos medieval town		Rhodos	1988	An impressive medieval city with fortifications, palaces and narrow alleys.
Monastery complex of Meteora		Thessally, central Greece	1988	A collection of Orthodox monasteries built on the spectacular, vertical rock formations that rise several hundred meters above the ground.
Mount Athos		Chalkidiki-peninsula, northern Greece	1988	A mountainous region considered sacred, with an orthodox, strictly male, monastic republic, enjoying a high degree of autonomy since the 11th century AD.

World Heritage in Greece, sites 7 – 12

Namn	Bild	Plats	Årtal för utnämning	Beskrivning
Paleo-Christian and Byzantine monuments in Thessaloniki		Thessaloniki	1988	A collection of early Christian and Byzantine monuments, including churches and basilicas, which testify to the historical importance of the region.
Sanctuary of Asclepius, Epidaurus		Epidaurus, North-eastern Peloponnese	1988	A well-preserved sanctuary, with the famous amphitheater and temples dedicated to Asclepius, the ancient Greek god of healing and medicine.
The Historic Centre (Chora) with the Monastery of Saint-John the Theologian and the Cave of the Apocalypse on Patmos		Patmos, northern Dodecanese islands	1999	An important religious site, which includes the Monastery of St. John and the Cave of the Apocalypse, where the Apostle John is believed to have written the Book of Revelation.
Archeological site of Olympia		Olympia, central Peloponnesos	1989	The site of the ancient Olympic Games with a monumental collection of Greek architecture and sculpture.
Island of Delos		Delos, Cyclades	1990	An important island, revered in prehistoric mythology, with well-preserved archaeological remains and temples.
Monasteries of Daphni, Hosios Loukas och Nea Moni of Chios		Located in Athens, in Fokida district – near Delphi, and on the island of Chios	1990	Three ancient monasteries with unique architecture and mosaic work representing the artistic skill of the Byzantine era.

World Heritage in Greece, sites: 13 – 18

Namn	Bild	Plats	Årtal för utnämning	Beskrivning
Pythagoreion and Heraion on Samos		Samos, Northern Aegean Islands	1992	Remains of an important ancient city of high cultural and religious importance, with an impressive sanctuary dedicated to the goddess Hera.
Archaeological site of Aigai (current Vergina)		Vergina, Greek Macedonia	1996	The site of the ancient royal tombs in Macedonia, where impressive burial treasures and artifacts have been found.
Archeeological site of Mycenae and Tiryns		Mycenae, Tiryns, Peloponnesos	1999	Two important cities from the Mycenaean period, showing the grandeur and architecture of the older ancient Greek civilization.
Old town of Corfu		Corfu, Ionian islands	2007	A well-preserved Venetian city center that bears traces of several different historical cultures and varying architectural styles.
Archeological site of Philippi		Philippi, north-eastern Greece	2016	An ancient city with impressive archaeological remains of great historical importance. The site of the Battle of Philippi .
Archeological site of Mystras		Near Sparta, Peloponnese	1989	The city of Mystras developed around the fortress built in 1249 on the slopes of Mount Taygetos. The city flourished during the later Byzantine period and was conquered by both the Ottomans and the Venetians.
Zagori Cultural Landscape		Region of Epirus, North-western Greece	2023	A remote and timeless rural landscape in northwestern Greece, where the stone-built villages of Zagorochoria nestle among sacred forests and are linked by a remarkable network of arched stone bridges, cobbled paths, and hand-carved stairways connecting the communities of the Vikos and Voïdomatis river basin.

Sources: UNESCO, Wikipedia
Photo: Wikimedia Commons license,
Many of the illustrations for this post were created using the AI model Stable Diffusion

A large part of these testimonies could have been lost if it weren’t for institutions like the Aikaterini Laskaridis Foundation. The foundation is a center for research and education, dedicated to promoting Greek culture both nationally and internationally. Its work covers a wide range of fields, from literature and history to maritime research and the preservation of historical documents.

Part of their digital initiative is Travelogues, a project led by historian Ioli Vingopoulou. The platform collects material from travel accounts about the Greek islands and the entire Eastern Mediterranean from the 15th century onward. Its purpose is to provide researchers and the general public with access to these unique testimonies while highlighting Greek culture and history in an international context.

For those interested in exploring further, Travelogues is also available in English: http://eng.travelogues.gr/

Travelers in the Greek Islands (1500–1900)

The travelers who journeyed through the Aegean Sea from the 16th century to the early 20th century did so for many different reasons. Some were pilgrims on their way to the Holy Land, others were diplomats on missions to the Ottoman capital. Merchants sought new markets, scholars and lovers of antiquity mapped the region’s history, and from the mid-19th century onward, journeys made purely for leisure became increasingly common.

The Greek islands lay along these sea routes but did not form a unified world. Some were under Venetian or Genoese control, while others were subject to the Ottoman Empire. Regardless of the ruling power, travelers often encountered a reality that differed from their expectations. They sought the lost antiquity but also discovered a vibrant archipelago where people struggled, worked, and adapted to the conditions set by nature and history. Some islands were nearly deserted, while others thrived through trade and seafaring. Through their testimonies, we gain insight into both sides of the Greek islands in the Aegean Sea.

This article is a first glimpse into the stories and images preserved from the travelers’ time in the Greek islands. Here, we highlight selected moments and accounts that offer a sense of the world they encountered – an exploration we will delve deeper into in the upcoming parts. All material in this article is published with permission from the Laskarides Foundation.

Syros

During the 19th century, Syros underwent an incredibly dramatic transformation. From being relatively unknown among the Greek islands, it became one of the Mediterranean’s most important commercial centers. Here, East, and West converged in a bustling hub of trade and culture.

J. Emerson Tennent was an Irish politician and lawyer. His travel accounts are a blend of travel narrative and political reflections, often based on second-hand information. His work includes one of the earliest views of Syros, from a time when the island was establishing itself as an important port in the Aegean Sea.

Among the journeys he describes is the voyage aboard the steamship Francesco I, the first cruise in the Eastern Mediterranean, organized by the architect Marchebeus in 1833 and later recounted in his travel chronicle from 1839.

The work of photographer F. F. Boissonnas, from the early 20th century, was groundbreaking in the history of photography. His images of Syros and other locations unite landscapes and people in perfect harmony.

During the second half of the 19th century, Syros gained increased attention in the European press. British newspapers such as The Illustrated London News and The Graphic published detailed wood engravings depicting the island’s landscape, population, and social life. These images, based on travelers’ sketches and notes, provided a wider audience with a visual insight into both everyday life on Syros and major events in the Greek world, ranging from political upheavals to natural disasters.

Patmos

In 1801, mineralogist Edward Daniel Clarke and his travel companions visited the monastery on Patmos, where they were granted permission to enter its library. What they encountered was a chaotic collection of books and manuscripts, where dust, moths, and mold had begun to take over.

Note: The text is a summary of an extensive article in Lifo magazine about the Laskarides Foundation’s online sessions on the Greek islands before modernization.

On the shelves stood printed books, which the monks valued most, while the hand-written manuscripts lay in disordered piles on the floor. Among them, traveler Clarke made some astonishing discoveries: a forgotten Platonic dialogue, a lexicon by Cyril of Alexandria, and volumes of ancient Greek hymns, complete with early musical notation. The monks agreed to sell some of the manuscripts—but only under the condition that the transaction be kept secret from the island’s inhabitants.

But the deal did not go as planned. As the travelers’ ship was ready to set sail and the manuscripts had yet to be delivered, they believed they had been deceived. Then, a man appeared on the shore with a large basket and gave a discreet signal. A boat was sent out to him, and he called out that he was delivering bread.

Edward Daniel Clarke himself describes in detail how the exchange took place:

“The man came aboard, cast a meaningful glance at us, and said loudly, ‘The Hegumen (Prior) has ordered me to take the basket back empty, and he asks that you count the loaves to ensure they are correct.’ We understood at once. We hurried aside, overturned the basket, and to our delight found Plato’s dialogue, Cyril’s lexicon, and other manuscripts. We quickly hid them, handed back the basket along with a small bakshish (tip), and everything went exactly as we had hoped.”

However, the smuggling affair did not remain a secret. The incident caused a scandal, and as early as the following year, 1802, an inscription in hexameter verse was carved at the library’s entrance. It reads:

“Within lie brilliant manuscripts.
To the wise man, they are more precious than gold.
Therefore, preserve them with the greatest care,
More than your own life.
For thanks to these writings, the monastery has become radiant.”

A Danish woman on Sikinos, 1850

In the 19th century, Greece was ruled by King Otto and Queen Amalia. The queen had a Danish personal pastor whose wife was Christiane Lüth. During her thirteen-year stay in the country, she frequently traveled around the Greek islands in the Aegean Sea. In her writings, she refrains from using academic terms, describing the people and islands in a simple, clear manner with a friendly and objective tone.

We arrived at the island of Sikinos around noon and found a simple harbor with two old boats. After some persuasion, we managed to get donkeys and began ascending a steep hill toward the village under the hot sun. We paused for a while at a well, where the view was vast and clear.

In the village, we were greeted by the Health Officer on a terrace, and we were soon surrounded by villagers who offered us coffee. The mayor arrived and invited us to his house, where his wife spoke to us kindly.

We also visited the church of Episkopi, built on an ancient temple dedicated to Apollo. Columns and marble from the old pagan temple are still prominently visible in and around the church building. On the way there, the priest offered us bread, olives, and raw beans. On the way back from the church, we visited a young weaver and had the chance to see her craftsmanship.

When we returned to the village, we were once again met by the mayor and the villagers. They wanted to hear about our excursion and what we thought of their island.

Note: The text above is a summary of an extensive article in Lifo magazine about the Laskarides Foundation’s online sessions on the Greek islands before modernization.

Paros

Choiseul-Gouffier, a French nobleman and travel writer, visited Paros during his first journey to Greece in 1776. In Voyage pittoresque de la Grèce, he described how the island’s marble, renowned for its purity and transparency, had once shaped some of Greece’s greatest works of art.

However, he was not only fascinated by the island’s marble quarries but also by its local life, documenting both landscapes and people. His accounts spread across Europe, helping to enhance the island’s mythical status as a place where the ancient heritage still lived.

Santorini

The volcanic island of Santorini, otherworldly and captivating, followed the same historical fate as the rest of the Cyclades, transitioning from Venetian to Ottoman rule. After centuries of foreign dominion, the island became part of the modern Greek state in the 19th century. It was during this period of change that Christopher Wordsworth published his richly illustrated work, Greece, Pictorial, Descriptive. More a historical account than a travel narrative, it gained significant popularity with the public.

Christopher Wordsworth was a distinguished classical scholar and Bishop of Lincoln. He traveled through Greece in 1832–1833 and was the first British citizen to be received by King Otto.

Wordsworth documented his travels through meticulous archaeological observations, with vivid depictions of the places he visited at the forefront. By connecting modern locations with their ancient counterparts, Wordsworth provides us with a captivating portrayal of Greece’s history. His work combines intellectual rigor with personal enthusiasm, making it a fascinating read for those wishing to explore Greece’s rich past through the eyes of a knowledgeable traveler.

The beginning of a longer journey

Here we conclude the first stage of our expedition through Greece, seen through the eyes of foreign travelers. Their diaries, sketches, and letters have revived an Aegean landscape long reshaped by the passage of time—but the glimpses we have shared are merely the beginning of a much more extensive account.

We will delve deeper into these travelers’ experiences and observations in future articles. We will follow their paths through communities, villages, ancient ruins, and coastal landscapes that have since undergone significant changes. The travelers’ documentation serves as an important historical resource, shedding light on cultural traditions, architecture, and everyday life from a time when travel was reserved for a privileged few.

By comparing their accounts with today’s reality, we also gain perspective on the development of tourism in the region—both its contribution to economic growth and its profound impact on local communities. Their notes and images thus become a valuable reference point for understanding the transformation of the islands over the past centuries.

Sources:

Texts, images, photographs, and maps are published with permission from the Aikaterini Laskaridis Foundation. The material is based on the Foundation’s extensive archives, where the travelers’ testimonies are documented: https://www.laskaridisfoundation.org/en/

Argyro Bozonis’s article in Lifo magazine has also been an important reference in this compilation.

Further Reading:

The website TravelTrails is a collaboration between the Aikaterini Laskaridis Foundation and the Gennadius Library. The site serves as a comprehensive database of travel accounts from the Eastern Mediterranean between the 16th and 20th centuries. It is available in Greek, Turkish, and English: https://traveltrails.gr.

Related Articles

By comparing these historical accounts with modern travel narratives, we gain a unique perspective on how the islands and the experience of traveling have changed over the centuries. For those curious about what it was like to explore the Greek islands in more recent times, the article series Uffe’s Greek Wanderings is recommended. It depicts island life during the 1970s and 1980s—a period when mass tourism had just begun, yet the islands still retained much of their traditional character.

• Ulf’s carefree Greek roamings, part 1
• Ulf’s carefree Greek roamings, part 2
• Ulf’s carefree Greek roamings, part 3

The intense seismic activity has prompted authorities to declare the islands in a state of emergency. As a precautionary measure, schools have been ordered to remain closed until further notice. Residents are advised to avoid large gatherings in enclosed spaces and to stay away from certain built-up areas and ports. If stronger tremors occur, residents should also avoid cliff areas and stay away from the coast.

Seismologists emphasize that the current activity is not linked to historical events such as the devastating 1956 earthquake or the volcano at Santorini. Experts are closely monitoring the ongoing tremors, and authorities urge caution while discouraging speculation about larger events.

However, the ongoing tremors serve as a reminder of the forces constantly at play in the Aegean region, where the Eurasian and African tectonic plates are pushing against each other.

For those living on Santorini and Amorgos or with a deeper knowledge of the Aegean Sea’s history, the recent tremors evoke memories of past earthquakes that forever altered the islands. One of the most devastating in modern times occurred in the mid-20th century, leaving deep scars in its wake. On Santorini, 500 buildings were destroyed and over 3,200 damaged, while 54 people lost their lives. On Amorgos, the destruction was extensive, though documentation of the damage remains limited.

The dual catastrophe – the earthquake and the tsunami – left an indelible mark on Greece’s modern history and serves as a reminder of the Aegean Sea’s relentless seismic forces.

Devastation in the Aegean Sea – the 1956 earthquake

Early morning on July 9, 1956, the earth split open beneath the feet of residents in the heart of the Aegean Sea. The tremors were brutal, but it wasn’t just the quake that left indelible scars on the landscape – it was the tsunami that soon struck, the falling rocks, and the shock that became forever etched in the memories of those who experienced the catastrophe.

The earthquake’s epicenter was located south of Amorgos, the easternmost of the Cycladic Islands in the Aegean Sea. It reached a magnitude of 7.5 – one of the highest recorded in Greece during the 20th century. The official death toll rose to just over 50, while hundreds were injured and even more lost their homes and possessions.

📌 Note: The historical images in this article are AI-generated, based on eyewitness accounts, photographic archives, and contemporary descriptions of the events. They are created to provide a visual impression of how the 1956 earthquake and tsunami affected Santorini and Amorgos.

Earth’s Wrath – Seconds of Devastation

The tremors transformed buildings into rubble, and the shock spread far beyond the Cyclades. The seismic tremors affected not just the islands but the entire Aegean region, all the way to the Turkish coast.

The daily newspaper To Vima reported the following day about the scenes of horror that had unfolded in Santorini:

Scenes of terror and panic spread across the stricken Santorini just minutes after the first tremor. Residents fled their homes in panic, rushing through narrow streets in an attempt to reach the beach. Meanwhile, the sound of collapsing houses echoed through the air, accompanied by the deep rumble of earth tremors and black smoke that seemed to rise from the volcano. Dust covered everything, transforming the morning into a nightmare.

Amid the devastation, people fought desperately to save their loved ones. One woman managed to grab her three infants and shield them with her own body as she fled into the street, avoiding the falling stones.

📌 Note: The historical images in this article are AI-generated, based on eyewitness accounts, photographic archives, and contemporary descriptions of the events. They are created to provide a visual impression of how the 1956 earthquake and tsunami affected Santorini and Amorgos.

Others were less fortunate – a café owner became trapped in a doorway and died of suffocation. Elsewhere, a grandmother took her two grandchildren in her arms and managed, stumbling and crawling, to get out unharmed. But the children’s mother, her daughter, lost her life under the rubble.

Six to eight seconds – that’s how long the quake lasted according to initial official reports. A moment that felt like an eternity for those who experienced it. Santorini, already marked by historical catastrophes, was once again struck by devastation. After the main shock, the tremors gradually subsided but continued to be felt for several days. Fearing more quakes, residents stayed outdoors, no one daring to return to their homes.

The tsunami – danger approaching from the sea

📌 Note: The historical images in this article are AI-generated, based on eyewitness accounts, photographic archives, and contemporary descriptions of the events. They are created to provide a visual impression of how the 1956 earthquake and tsunami affected Santorini and Amorgos.

As if the earthquake itself wasn’t enough, the next blow came from the sea. A violent tsunami was triggered by the quake and crashed over the islands. Santorini and Amorgos were particularly hard hit. The water masses, with waves up to 30 meters high, swept away houses, boats, and people – those who hadn’t perished in the rubble now had the sea itself to defend against. The waves spread in all directions, affecting not only the southern islands of the Cyclades but also Crete’s northern coast and the Dodecanese Islands.

Historical accounts describe how the sea at Katapola on Amorgos completely withdrew, allowing people to walk on the exposed seabed – before the waves struck back with devastating force.

Rumors about the volcano

In the first hours of the panic that erupted, many residents reported seeing the volcano erupt, with large amounts of black smoke rising from the crater. However, this turned out to be a misunderstanding.

Seismologists rule out any connection between the earthquake and a volcanic eruption. The tremor was purely tectonic, caused by movements in the Earth’s crust rather than volcanic activity. The presence of the volcano in the area, combined with swirling black dust, may have created the illusion of an eruption, but experts confirm that there is no basis for this claim.

The last confirmed volcanic eruption on Santorini occurred in 1950, six years before the major earthquake, and no unusual seismic activity was recorded at the active craters in connection with the 1956 quake.

The volcanic history of Santorini

Santorini has experienced numerous volcanic eruptions throughout history, varying in strength and explosiveness. At least twelve major explosive eruptions have been documented, four of which were so powerful that they created a new caldera—meaning a collapse of the volcano’s crater, completely reshaping the landscape.

The oldest eruptions occurred between 650,000 and 550,000 years ago, with many of them taking place underwater. Over the past 360,000 years, the volcano has gone through two major cycles, each culminating in two massive caldera-forming eruptions that reshaped the entire island.

During the Bronze Age, the Minoan eruption of Santorini took place—one of the largest volcanic eruptions in human history. The eruption’s epicenter was located in the area that today forms the great caldera.

Before this event, Santorini had the shape of an almost enclosed ring, with only a narrow passage leading into the inner lagoon. The Minoan eruption was so powerful that large parts of this ring disappeared, creating two new channels and giving the island its present form.

This event was one of the most pivotal in the early history of the Aegean Sea and is believed to have contributed to the decline of the Minoan civilization.

After the Minoan eruption, volcanic activity has been concentrated around the Kameni Islands in the center of the lagoon. These islands have gradually formed since the Bronze Age, with the first one rising above sea level in 197 BCE.

Since then, nine eruptions have been documented. In 1707, an underwater volcano broke through the sea surface, creating Nea Kameni, which has since been the focal point of volcanic activity in the area. During the 20th century, three eruptions occurred, the last one in 1950, with no major consequences.

Although the volcano is considered dormant today, steam and carbon dioxide continue to be emitted from the currently active crater on Nea Kameni, while several older craters remain scattered across the island.

Santorini: The 1925 eruption

Historical footage from the 1925 eruption on Nea Kameni, filmed by Professor Georgios Georgalas. The video was created for educational purposes and includes material from ERT’s documentary series “Ταξιδεύοντας στην Ελλάδα” / “Traveling in Greece”. Published on YouTube by Trantafyllos Soldatos.

The Aegean Sea – where three continents meet

For millennia, the Aegean Sea has carried both life and destruction. Santorini and Amorgos, two islands shaped by the forces of the sea and the earth, have repeatedly witnessed nature’s relentless power.

The hundreds of tremors now shaking Santorini and Amorgos serve as a reminder of the region’s geological reality. For the islands’ inhabitants, earthquakes are not distant historical events but a part of everyday life. Just as the survivors of the 1956 earthquake learned to rebuild their communities, today’s islanders continue to adapt—with modern technology, stronger buildings, and well-developed warning systems. Yet beneath the surface, the forces of nature remain as unpredictable now as they were then.

The most devastating earthquakes

The table below shows the most devastating earthquakes in Greece, ranked by magnitude. The strongest tremors are listed at the top and include the number of fatalities.

Sources: To Vima, tovima.com, Wikipedia, ekriti.gr, Ta Nea, iefimerida.gr

📌 Note: The historical images in this article are AI-generated, based on eyewitness accounts, photographic archives, and contemporary descriptions of the events. They are created to provide a visual impression of how the 1956 earthquake and tsunami affected Santorini and Amorgos.

Older articles about Amorgos

Amorgos – a gem in the big blue

Amorgos, a future is being built with the stones of older times

Goddess Artemis, Cult and Sanctuary

The sanctuary at Brauron is one of the most significant archaeological sites in Attica. It was expanded to its final form around the 6th century BC. This was the site of one of the most important festivals in antiquity, the Βραυρώνια/Brauronia, which was dedicated to the Olympian goddess Artemis.

The festivities were held every five years and were considered almost as important as the Eleusinian Mysteries, which we looked at in a previous article.

Artemis is one of the most versatile and fascinating goddesses in Greek mythology. Her cults were spread throughout the ancient Greek world. She was associated not only with hunting and wilderness but also with childbirth, women’s health, children, and youth, especially girls before they reached adulthood. At Brauron, Artemis seems to have been worshiped primarily in this role.

An important element of the Brauronia cult was the ritual ceremonies and processions of young girls approaching marriageable age. The girls were called άρκτοι (arktoi)/bears, symbolizing their transition from childhood to adulthood.

They honored Artemis through sacred dances, dressed in saffron-colored garments. They ran races and made offerings to the goddess. Sometimes, nudity was part of these rites of passage, symbolizing the girls’ preparation for adult life.

Before getting married, the girls also sacrificed their childhood toys to Artemis, and many of these objects have been found in the temple area.

During the later classical period, Artemis was also identified with Σελήνη/Selene, the personification of the moon. She was often said to wander in forests and mountains, accompanied by her nymphs. The Roman equivalent of Artemis is Diana.

Artemis temple

The temple dedicated to Artemis itself was built on the slope of a 78-foot-high hill where a spring, considered sacred, still flows. Today, only the foundations of the temple remain, as it has been destroyed over time by wars and natural disasters.

In the 15th century, the Byzantine chapel of Agios Georgios was built on the same site, partially carved into the rock. Nearby, the remains of an ancient church dated to the 5th century AD have also been found.

Stoa – The Colonnade

North of the temple, around the 5th century BC, what now dominates the site was built: a στοά/stoa – a colonnade or open hall, in the shape of a “Π” (Pi). It served as a central gathering place during religious festivals and promoted a sense of community among those honoring Artemis. Important ceremonies were performed here, and meals were held in honor of the goddess.

Adjacent to this was a smaller stoa that housed several rooms where the arktoi girls lived. Although this smaller stoa was never fully completed, it was actively used during the festivities in classical times. Several of the girls’ names have been found as inscriptions on the remains of the walls in this stoa.

In both colonnades, gifts and small statues were also placed, which parents offered as sacrifices when they put their children under the goddess’s protection.

Iphigenia’s tomb

The remains of what is said to be the mythological tomb of Iphigenia can be seen just east of the Temple of Artemis. The tomb was originally located inside a cave, whose roof collapsed already during the Classical period.

Iphigenia was the daughter of King Agamemnon and Queen Clytemnestra in Greek mythology. As told in the Iliad, before the Greeks could sail to Troy, the goddess Artemis demanded that Iphigenia be sacrificed to ensure favorable winds for the fleet.

At the last moment, Artemis saved Iphigenia and took her to the land of Tauris, on the coast of the Black Sea. With the help of her brother Orestes, she later returned to Greece. According to one version of the myth, retold by Euripides, Iphigenia arrived in Brauron, where she became the high priestess of Artemis.

A cult site since the Stone Age

Numerous archaeological finds have shown that the area of Brauron has been inhabited since ancient times. The hill and the sacred spring have played an important role in religious rituals as early as the Neolithic period and throughout the Bronze Age. The cult of Artemis is believed to have emerged and developed around the 9th century BC.

Unfortunately, much of the sanctuary was destroyed during the Persian invasion in 480 BC, but the site was partially rebuilt later during the Classical period. The festivities at Brauron began to decline after the 3rd century BC.

Sanctuaries near Athens: the museum in Brauron

The Archaeological Museum of Vravrona is located just a few hundred meters from the sanctuary. The permanent exhibition showcases finds from the excavations of the temple area and other nearby archaeological sites.

The exhibition focuses on the history of Brauron, from prehistoric settlements to ancient monuments, as well as traditions linked to the cult of Artemis. The museum also houses antiquities and finds from surrounding municipalities.

The museum has five exhibition halls, an inner courtyard, as well as storage and workshops for the preservation and conservation of archaeological finds.

Opening hours: Every day except Tuesday, 08:00 – 15:30.

You can download the museum guide in PDF format here (English/Greek) >>

The wetland of Brauron

The natural riverbed environment that still dominates the area around the mouth of the Erasinos River provides the land with an abundant water supply, and the Brauron area today forms an important wetland protected under Natura 2000, a European network for biodiversity conservation.

The Brauron wetland is home to a wide variety of plants and animals, many of which are very rare. Many herons find refuge here, while rare birds of prey nest on the surrounding hills. This ecological richness makes the area a central point for both history and nature conservation in the region.

Artemis – a versatile goddess

Artemis was a complex and versatile deity in Greek mythology. Her cults varied depending on the location and local traditions. In Ephesus, on the coast of Asia Minor, she was worshiped as a maternal fertility goddess. Her temple, the Artemision, was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World and an important center for the veneration of the goddess as a protector of motherhood and fertility.

In Sparta, she appeared as Artemis Orthia, a strict goddess who oversaw the education and physical training of young Spartans. Here, her role was closely tied to discipline and strength, qualities that were important in Spartan culture.

On the island of Delos, where according to mythology she and her twin brother Apollo were born, grand festivals were held in their honor. The island was a significant religious center, and Artemis was worshiped here as a powerful deity associated with birth and rites of passage.

Artemis was worshiped in many different ways, but everywhere she remained a powerful symbol of nature’s wild beauty and the female life cycle. She was a central figure in ancient Greece’s religious life and one of the oldest deities to be worshiped.

Brauron – Βραυρώνα

Sources

Greek Wikipedia, Greek Ministry of Culture, archaiologia.gr, Archeological Museum in Brauron

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The mythology developed slowly over millennia, and each story often has several versions. Greek mythology is estimated to encompass over 30,000 deities, heroes, and other mythological figures. With such enormous diversity, the subject can easily feel overwhelming. Therefore, this article series on Greek gods aims to provide an overview of the Greek divine world and its most central figures.

The Twelve Olympian Gods

When we hear the words “Greek gods,” the Olympian gods most often come to mind. They are the most powerful gods in mythology and are called Olympians because, according to tradition, they resided on Mount Olympus.

According to most sources, these twelve are considered to be: Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Demeter, Athena, Ares, Aphrodite, Apollo, Artemis, Hephaestus, Hestia, and Hermes. In some writings, the god Dionysus is mentioned as one of the twelve, instead of the goddess Hestia. Another of the most powerful and important gods was Hades, who, however, was not counted among the Olympians, because he did not have Olympus as his dwelling. Hades was the god of death and ruler of the underworld.

Click here for an overview table of the largest and most powerful Greek gods and their attributes.

Cosmogony

To truly understand the place of the Olympian gods in the great puzzle of Greek mythology, we must go back to the beginning of everything, to cosmogony – the origin of the cosmos, according to early ancient Greek tradition.

The Birth of the Gods

The first divine couple in Greek mythology was Uranus and Gaia. Their union created the first dynasty of gods.

The events that preceded the creation of Gaia and Uranus are not entirely clear. The most important and almost only source preserved for this first period in Greek mythology is the Theogony, a work written by Hesiod around 700 BC.

Hesiod wrote that before everything else, there was Χάος – Chaos. Within Chaos was the seed of everything that would later constitute the cosmos. Chaos gave birth to Erebus – the darkness of the underworld, Nyx – the night, and Gaia – the earth. Gaia then gave birth to Uranus, the sky, who covered her with his star-studded vault. This son became Gaia’s husband. And thus, mythology transitions into the “era of the gods”.

Interestingly, Hesiod also says that from Chaos, together with Gaia, Eros was also born – in his original form. Eros is presented here as a principle of utmost importance and unlimited power, that existed before the gods and led the elements to their unions and compositions.

Uranus and Gaia

Uranus and Gaia had many children who are usually called Ουρανίδες/Uranides. One category of Uranides is the Titans. They are twelve in number, six men and six women. Some of the Titans who will play an important role in the following dramatic events are Oceanus, Hyperion, Rhea, Metis, Iapetus, and finally Cronus, the youngest of the Uranides.

Other children of Uranus and Gaia were also the three Cyclopes, man-eating giants with only one eye on their foreheads. They were strong and skilled, but selfish and arrogant.

The Hecatoncheires – the hundred-handed ones – are also usually counted among the Uranides. They were monstrous giants of inconceivable size, with a hundred invincible arms and fifty heads growing from their shoulders.

Finally, the Giants are sometimes also called Uranides, but they were born differently, as explained below.

Uranus is Overthrown

Uranus, fearing that his children would one day overthrow him from the throne, cast his offspring down into Tartarus, in the darkest innards of the earth. Gaia was inconsolable and decided to take cruel revenge. She made a large diamond-sickle intending to mutilate her husband, with the help of her children. But none of the Uranides dared to help her in this endeavor. Only Cronus, the youngest of them all, agreed to cooperate with his mother. So one night he lay in wait when his father went to bed, and with the sickle, he cut off Uranus’s member.

From the drops of the spilled blood, the Giants, the Erinyes, and the Nymphs were born. Cronus threw the severed member into the waves of the sea. The sea kept it for a long time. One day, foam began to well up from the member, and from the foam, a new great deity was born: Aphrodite.

Cronus and Rhea

Cronus took his father’s throne and made one of his Titan sisters, Rhea, his wife. Together they had many children: Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, Poseidon, and, later, Zeus. There was a prophecy that also Cronus would be toppled from his throne by one of his offspring. Therefore, Cronus swallowed his children immediately after their birth.

Rhea could not bear this situation. When she became pregnant again, she fled to Crete, gave birth to Zeus, left him there, and returned to her husband. She pretended to give birth and presented Cronus with a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes. Cronus swallowed it immediately, believing he had once again defeated fate.

Zeus Overthrows His Father

Ancient authors tell us very little about how Cronus was overthrown and how Zeus when he grew up, took power. The most accepted version is that of Apollodorus of Athens, who says that Zeus received help from Metis, daughter of Oceanus. She provided Zeus with an emetic which they managed to give to Cronus, causing him to vomit up the stone first, and then the rest of his children.

But after Zeus took power, he had to, as we shall see, fight terrible battles to consolidate his rule. The older deities did not submit immediatly, and frightful, fierce clashes ensued.

Battles for the Celestial Throne

The Titan-battle

When Zeus took the throne, the Titans began to wage war against the new king. This clash is known as Τιτανομαχία/The Titanomachy and lasted for ten years. Zeus freed the Hundred-Handed Ones and the Cyclopes from Tartarus to fight on his side. This resulted in an epic battle that has been vividly described in both ancient and contemporary art. According to Hesiod, the earth shook, the waves of the sea roared, and the sky was split by lightning. The Titan War ended with Zeus’s triumph. The defeated Titans were finally imprisoned in Tartarus, in the depths of the earth.

The Battle Against the Giants

The next challenge came from the Giants, born from Uranus’s blood drops. These monstrous creatures had large beards, long hair, and legs covered with reptile scales. The battle was fought in Pallene, in western Chalkidiki. On his side, Zeus had many Greek gods and heroes, such as Athena, Hera, Heracles, and Poseidon. Zeus won by destroying an herb that would have made the Giants immortal.

The Battle Against Typhon

The last and most terrible enemy was Typhon, a monster with a hundred dragon heads and eyes that hurled flames. His head reached up to the stars, and his body was covered with feathers. In the first battle, Typhon defeats Zeus. But with the help of Hermes, he recovered and re-entered the fight. The final clash shook the cosmos to its foundations. Typhon tore up entire mountains with his enormous hands and hurled them at his opponent. Zeus responded with a rain of lightning bolts from his chariot, drawn by winged horses. The hard battle ended with Zeus burying Typhon under Mount Etna, in Sicily, where, according to tradition, he still lives and spews fire and lava.

Typhon was defeated, but his offspring remained on earth: Cerberus, Chimera, the Sphinx, the Lernaean Hydra, and others. He had these children through his union with the mother of all monsters, Echidna.

The Gods of Olympus

With Zeus established as the supreme ruler among Greek gods, the first part of our journey through Greek mythology comes to an end. We have followed the lineage of the gods from Chaos to the founding of Olympus, a story that we have seen is largely based on Hesiod’s work Theogony.

In the second part of the series, we will delve deeper into the Olympian pantheon. We will explore the roles of the Greek gods, their attributes, and the myths surrounding them. This closer examination will give us an overview and a more nuanced understanding of the Greek divine world and its significance.

As we leave the Theogony – the story of the birth of the gods – behind us, a new rich landscape of mythological personalities, legends, and traditions opens up. Their influence extends far beyond the boundaries of Olympus.

Keep an eye on our blog for part 2 of the series, Greek Gods – An Overview>>

Here you can – completely free – join the Expedition for our newsletter and stay up to date with news and updates.

Table of the most powerful Greek gods

Roman Names for the Greek Gods

As Rome expanded across the ancient Hellenic world, the Romans adopted the Olympian gods and gradually renamed them with Roman equivalents. This can create some confusion. Therefore, here is an overview table of the Roman equivalents of the Greek names.

Sources

The article series Greek Gods – an overview is based on the book “Ελληνική Μυθολογία/Greek Mythology” by Andreas Georgiou, published in 1960. It was the first book on Greek mythology written directly in Modern Greek (dimotiki), which was not a translation from other languages. You can reach the author’s website here>> (in Greek).

Other sources: Swedish, Greek, English Wikipedia

Just over a month earlier, on 28 April 1941, the whole of humanity was humiliated when the swastika flag was raised on the Acropolis – the symbol of democracy and Western civilization. Athens had surrendered and Wehrmacht troops marched into the historic quarters.

The feat gets forgotten.

The two young men made their action known through independent statements in 1945. But in the difficult decades that followed, with civil war, persecutions, military dictatorship and more, the heroic act fell almost into oblivion.

It wasn’t until 1982 that the story made headlines again when Glezos and Sandas were interviewed on a popular TV program. The show was hosted by Freddy Germanos, a well-known journalist in Greece. This legendary interview (in Greek) is what most sources refer to when they talk about the heroic deed.

The secret crypts of the Acropolis

As the two 19-year-old students walked through the streets of Athens and saw the swastika waving over the sacred rock of the Acropolis, they decided to take action. The idea began to take shape in their minds. However, they quickly realized that careful preparation was needed before they could put their plan into action.

Glezos and Sandas got straight down to studying maps and literature about the Acropolis at the National Library. They read in the Great Greek Encyclopedia about the many tunnels and caves under the ancient rock. They realized that their only way past the German guards was through one of these hidden entrances. After careful study of the terrain, they decided on a particular crypt under the Acropolis that would be their way up that fateful night.

It’s been a bit of a mystery over the years about where exactly the cave opening was that they used to ascend the Acropolis cliff. They referred to it as Σπήλαιο της Αγραύλου/Agravlou Cave, but several local names have changed since 1941, and their memories have also been a little unclear at various times.

However, by studying their testimonies and statements, archaeologists have in recent years begun to identify the entrance as the Mycenaean Fountain, which has been known since antiquity, located on the north side of the Acropolis. Manolis Korres, professor emeritus at the Technical University of Greece and chairman of the Acropolis Conservation Committee, has spoken in favor of this theory in interviews. Therefore, while the heroes’ own statements can’t be entirely dismissed, the ‘Mycenaean Spring’ seems the most likely place from which the brave action began.

The plan gets implemented

On 30 May 1941, Glezos and Sandas heard on the radio that Crete had fallen into German hands. This became the impetus for them to put their bold plan into action.

That same midnight, they climbed up the cliff to try to take down the large, 4×2-meter Nazi flag. After three attempts at the top of the Acropolis, they finally managed to get it down. They cut off a piece around the swastika as a souvenir and threw the rest of the flag into a nearby dry well.

It was only the next morning that the German garrison discovered that their flag was missing from the mast of the Acropolis. The Nazis reacted harshly after their flag was taken down. The commander of the guard forces immediately issued a sharp communiqué:

“… On the night of 30-31 May, the German war flag was desecrated by being hauled down from the Acropolis by unknown perpetrators. Rigorous interrogations are underway. The culprits and their accomplices will be punished by death…“

Glezos and Santas were immediately sentenced to death in absentia. The German guard force was executed as punishment for not guarding the area properly. The local Greek police chiefs around the Acropolis were also immediately dismissed from their posts.

It’s worth noting that the Germans themselves announced the tearing down of the flag, which made the heroic act known all over Greece immediately and even attracted international attention. According to the Larousse Britannica encyclopedia, it led French President General de Gaulle to describe Manolis Glezos as “Europe’s first partisan'”

The anonymous heroes

The bold act of tearing down the Nazi flag from the Acropolis had a huge symbolic impact.

For the Nazis, seeing their flag removed from one of the world’s most important cultural sites was a huge embarrassment. Their harsh reprisals showed just how significant the action was. The event was also recognized internationally as a major act of resistance.

The Greek people were inspired to resist the occupying power, and the action was like a beacon of hope in the darkness. The civil courage of the two young students has been of great inspiration for future generations in their fight for freedom and democracy.

As Manolis Glezos often emphasizes, this action should be dedicated to all the anonymous heroes, up to 120,000 of them, who died, were executed, or were killed during the resistance against the Nazis. In most Greek families there is the memory of at least one such anonymous lost member who sacrificed their life for the homeland.

Sources:
https://www.liberal.gr/apopsi/apo-edo-anebikan-stin-akropoli-oi-glezos-santas
Freddy Germanos TV-program 1982
Wikipedia

Related article

The Greek alphabet has also historically played an important role in philosophy, science, and art. Letters such as Α (Alpha), Β (Beta), Δ (Delta), Π (Pi), and Σ (Sigma) have been fundamental in mathematics and other sciences. Learning the Greek alphabet and its background provides a deeper understanding of the history and culture of Greece and its impact on today’s societies. By exploring this alphabet, we open the door to new ideas and insights into how our civilization was shaped.

Moreover, if you wish to learn to speak Greek, you will hear from those who have already studied the language that the first step is to master the Greek alphabet.

The 24 letters

The modern Greek alphabet used today consists of 24 letters and has undergone many changes throughout history. In fact, the older alphabet had several letters that are no longer used in the modern written language. The 24 current letters are divided into 7 vowels and 17 consonants. The vowels are α (alpha), ε (epsilon), η (eta), ι (iota), ο (omicron), υ (ypsilon) and ω (omega). These are combined with different consonants to write the words of the Greek language.

Vowels, consonants, digraphs, and diphthongs

In addition to individual letters, the Greek writing system also includes digraphs, which are combinations of two letters that represent a specific sound or phonetic feature. Also, diphthongs are used in the Greek language. Diphthongs are mainly combinations of two vowels that form a single sound.

In simple terms, one can say that the Greek alphabet is thus a combination of vowels, consonants, digraphs, and diphthongs that together form the written representation of the language. These elements are used to create words, expressions, and sentences; they are the building blocks of the modern written Greek language.

Examples of how to say …

Related video – Guess Greek Gestures

Historical development of the alphabet

The Greek alphabet shows a fascinating historical development. Already in ancient times, there were numerous myths and theories about its origin. The dramatist Aeschylus claimed that the titan Prometheus was the first to give humans the letters. The tragedian Euripides, on the other hand, believed that the mythological hero Palamedes invented the alphabet, or at least parts of it. Other thinkers believed that the three goddesses of fate – the Moirae – created the first letters. There were also some who honored the god Hermes for this gift to humanity.

Linear B – the first Greek written language

As discussed in previous posts, it is now generally accepted that the oldest Greek written language was Linear B, which was in use during the Mycenaean period from 1400 BC to 1200 BC. However, the alphabet, as we know it today, is believed to have evolved from ancient Phoenician, although there are theories claiming that several language families may have influenced its development, according to the polygenesis theory.

Separating vowels and consonants

The Greek alphabet was an adaptation and modification of the Phoenician alphabet. The Greeks removed consonants that did not have equivalents in their language and used them instead to denote vowel sounds. Thus, they created the first writing system with separate symbols for vowels and consonants, allowing an unambiguous representation of speech. This was a significant advantage over other contemporary writing systems that could be ambiguous. In addition, the Greek alphabet now had a lower number of characters, which made the writing system more accessible to those who wanted to learn to write and could no longer be monopolized only by specialists, the scholars.

Upper and lower case letters

In ancient times, the classical alphabet consisted only of uppercase letters, meaning that all letters were written in capitals. We recognize this form of the alphabet from monumental texts, such as inscriptions on statues, vases, buildings, and public places.

It was not until the early Middle Ages, more specifically in the 9th and 10th centuries, that the lower-case letters were fully established in the Greek writing system. The introduction of lower-case letters allowed for greater variety and flexibility and enabled the use of different fonts and levels of style.

Accents

Greek language development is also characterized by the various systems of accent markings, used throughout the centuries, to facilitate linguistic pronunciation.
As early as the Hellenistic period, around 200 BC, people began experimenting with using a variety of diacritical marks, such as accents and breathing signs, to mark particular stresses and pronunciation variations. This was later systematized and became the so-called Greek polytonic system, where letters could carry several different accent marks and have varying pitches. The polytonic alphabet was in use for a very long time, almost two millennia. However, it was replaced in the 1980s by the monotonic writing system.

The monotonic system assigns letters only one accent, called a tone, which indicates that that particular letter should be emphasized in the word. This adjustment greatly simplified the written language and facilitated the use of the Greek alphabet in modern technologies and digital platforms. Those changes in the formation and the accentuation of the Greek alphabet reflect the continuous evolution of the language throughout history and its adaptation to different written and verbal needs.

Learn how to count with Greek numbers

In its original form, the Greek alphabet was probably used mainly to denote numbers and figures. In Greece, the Ionian numeral system was once the most widespread, before the Arabic numerals became established. This system is still used today, alongside the now-dominant modern numerals.

The Arabic system, also known as the Hindu-Arabic numeral system, was introduced in Greece in the Middle Ages. This took place in the context of trade relations and cultural exchange between the Arab and Greek worlds. It is important to note that the Arabic system did not replace the Greek numeral system completely and immediately. The transition was gradual and took place over a long period, from around the 9th century until the Renaissance. However, even today in Greece, the older system is used, especially for ordinal numbers and in official or ecclesiastical contexts.

Influences and impacts outside Greece

The historical importance of the Greek alphabet extends far beyond the borders of Greece. It has influenced the development of other writing systems, such as the Latin alphabet used in the Western world and the Cyrillic alphabet used in several Slavic languages. This shows the global impact of the Greek alphabet and its extensive spread across continents and cultural environments.

In science, the Greek alphabet has historically played a very significant role. Many mathematical symbols and terms used internationally have their roots in the Greek alphabet. For example, Σ (sigma) is used to denote summation, π (pi) to represent the number pi, and α (alpha) or δ (delta) to denote variables in various scientific disciplines. In astronomy and astrophysics, the Greek alphabet is used to name stars, constellations, and other celestial bodies. Many of the most famous stars have Greek letters as prefixes, such as α Centauri (Alpha Centauri), β Orionis (Beta Orionis), and γ Cassiopeiae (Gamma Cassiopeiae).

Combinations of letters of the Greek alphabet are also widely used by international associations, societies, and organizations to show common affiliation and strengthen cohesion. The letter combinations serve as identity symbols and can be seen in logos, emblems, and naming. Using Greek letters reinforces the link to ancient Greece and its rich cultural heritage. Examples include Lambda Theta Alpha, Alpha Phi Alpha, Phi Beta Kappa.

In English, we have the expression “the Alpha and Omega,” which comes directly from the Bible (Revelation 1:8). It refers to God calling himself the beginning and end of all things. So in English, “the Alpha and Omega” can be used to mean the absolute most important part of something.

When it comes to how the Greek alphabet is represented digitally, the Unicode character encoding is used. This means that each character of the written language is assigned a specific code that allows it to be represented on computers and digital devices. This has facilitated the use of the Greek alphabet in the digital world and made it accessible to a wide audience. In total, there are 518 characters in the Unicode standard that are classified as belonging to the Greek written language. Example: Alpha “Α” = (U+0391) and Omega “Ω” (U+03A9).

Letters that have disappeared

The letters of the Greek alphabet were not always twenty-four. During its development over the centuries, some of them fell out of use and were gradually abandoned. Some of these phased-out letters are:

• Digamma (Ϝ ϝ), was the sixth letter in early forms of the Greek alphabet. It was a phoneme, like the English (w)
• Sabi (ϡ) is also an old and now obsolete letter of the Greek alphabet, which was later used solely as a numerical symbol for the number 900. It is believed to represent a phoneme similar to double [ssh] or [tt].
• Stigma (Ϛ ) is a cluster of the characters sigma σ and taf τ still used today in the Greek numbering system as a symbol for the number six (6), Στ’. It was previously used instead of the pair st to write words such as stratos (ϛratos).

Final words

In conclusion, the alphabet is a fundamental part of Greece’s cultural and historical heritage. The Greek alphabet has a significance that extends far beyond its written uses. It is a symbol of Greece’s history and heritage, and has had a significant impact on science, mathematics, and other fields. By preserving and using the alphabet, Greece honors its rich history and demonstrates its continued importance in today’s society.

Sources:

• https://users.sch.gr/ipap/NEGlossa/fon-sim_NE-Gl.htm
• https://piotermilonas.blogspot.com
• Wikipedia
• worldhistory.org
• Encyclopedia Britannica

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Today, Georgios Xyftilis, blog writer and founder of the Greek Expedition, presents one of those sad stories, from his own family:

Grandma Kalliopi lost her 16-year-old son Kostas, the uncle we never got to know, when he was arrested and executed at the end of World War II, for being active in the Greek resistance. This is a fate sadly shared by too many families during the dark days of occupation. Listen to how Kalliopi recounts the tragic event in a film by Matheo Yamalakis (English subtitles):

This is an excerpt from Matheo Yamalakis film “Στην Αθήνα (In Athens)” from 1982,The whole film can be found at Matheos YouTube channel: / @matheoyamalakis5763
URL till the whole film: – ΣΤΗΝ ΑΘΗΝΑ
Matheos’ homepage: http://www.matheo.se/
Matheo Yamalakis was a Swedish-Greek film director and artist that sadly left us just about two years ago.

Grandma Kalliopi’s story in her own words

One morning I got up early, my husband had a morning shift. He had to be at the station at 5 am. I got up with him and followed him to the front door as usual.

Then I saw – there was a bakery opposite – I saw a man standing at the door outside the bakery. I was surprised because at that time people were not up so early. I wondered why he was standing there…

5 – 10 minutes after my husband left, I heard gunshots. I wondered what it could be and went down to the window to look. There I saw two Germans and two Greeks standing at the crossroads of Agiou Dimitriou, the main road leading here.
They were standing there with guns in their hands.

My one son Kostas was at home but my other son, Andreas, was not here. I hurriedly went into Kostas’ room and told him that there were Germans outside. He also came and looked. “It’s Bougiouris,” he said. I didn’t know who he was.

The house door kicked open

Kostas started to run but barely made it back to his room before the men kicked in the door – the outside door we still have downstairs – so that part of it broke off (I start crying when I remember) part of it broke off and they came in two Greeks and two Germans.

The German soldiers did not go into Kostas’ room, only the Greeks went there.
One was Stamatakos, the Germans used him as an interpreter. The other was Bougiouris, whom Kostas had mentioned. They started rummaging through cupboards and drawers, throwing our things around. Stamatakos slapped Kostas in the face.

I cried and screamed, “Why are you doing this?” “What has my child done to you?”
He replied: Do you forget that he brushed on the walls of the house “Down with Bougiouris!” “Down with the traitors!”? Now that I’m sending him to the Germans, he’ll see!
They took Kostas with them and left.

The detention camp in Chaidari

On his way out, Bougiouris says, “You’re lucky your other son isn’t here, otherwise I would have taken him too. So he meant Andreas.

They took Kostas and many others to the prison camp in Chaidari.

The following Sunday we also went there with another neighbor’s wife. We went there to give them clothes and to take their dirty laundry Kostas had left a little note among their clothes. He wanted us to send bandages next time.
I wondered why he needed bandages.

The next time we were there we managed to see him.
He was out working in the camp and had blisters on his skin.
“What is it?” I asked him. ‘It’s from the sun, mom.

His pants were also completely torn I asked him why he hadn’t put on the full pants I had sent along. ‘I haven’t, Mom, but I will,’ he said.
We asked where they had taken him. He said they had taken him to the police station.

Interrogation by the police

There he had met another neighbor of ours, Dritsakos was his name, he was a constable and wanted Kostas to reveal where one of his friends lived.
Kostas replied that he did not know. The officer said, you bastard, pretend you don’t know, I’ve seen you go to his house.

“Who wants to hit?” the officer asked the other policemen. And they all started hitting him. So he was in a bad way and needed the bandage he had asked for.

His father suggested we send in an application to be released.
“No,” said Kostas, “they’ll take me in for questioning again. They will hang me upside down from the winch, like when they interrogated my father and brother.

The end

One morning, my husband and I were on our way to visit Kostas again. We didn’t get any further than the bus station when we met one of the other arrested boys’ father. His name was Politis and I thought he looked very upset.

He asked us where we were going. “We’re going to the boys,” I replied.
“What boys?” he asked. It’s already over, they’ve been killed”.
My husband asked how he knew that.
“It was in the papers”.

We bought a newspaper and it had all their names and the place of execution.
So and so many have been hanged, in retaliation for a German soldier being killed.

After the liberation

Later, when the Germans left the country, we went there to do the excavation.
They lay foot to foot, in a big pit, they lay like this… buried in long rows, foot to foot.

We stood there all parents and watched as they shoveled away the earth, then I saw … recognized him … my Kostas, recognized him by his clothes.
The sweater he was wearing, the cross he was carrying… That’s our Kostas, I said to my husband.

We dug out the skeleton … he had his hands … hands clenched together… like this…
Only the knuckles were left.
Why does he have his hands like that, my Kostas, I wondered.

Voice of arrator in the video: Kalliopi will never know why her son clenched his fists when the fascists hanged him. Was it perhaps in defiance of the great injustice that had already begun to befall the people? The nationalist informers had begun to serve their new masters: the British and the king, who had now become the leader of local Fascism.
Later, during the Civil War, Kalliopi’s elder son, Andreas, was sentenced to death three times by the local fascists for fighting against Nazism. He was rescued just before his execution.

Late recognition of the Greek resistance

It would take decades before the anonymous heroes who fought against the occupation received their rightful vindication and recognition. It was only in the 1980s that their memory and the sacrifices they made for Greece’s freedom began to be openly honored.

In August 1982, the Greek Parliament adopted a bill recognizing the united national Greek resistance against the occupying forces during the period 1941-1944.

It is particularly important today to shine a light on the anonymous heroes of the Greek resistance, as far-right and xenophobic forces are once again gaining influence. As the echoes of boot-stomping paramilitary groups are once again heard on our streets and minorities are subjected to hatred and incitement, we should learn about and honor those who once stood up and gave their lives in the fight against oppression and totalitarianism.

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